The impact of raindrops on the loose soil tends to transfer fine clay particles into the tiniest soil spaces, sealing them and producing a surface that allows very little water penetration. (TPO2 reading P1) 雨水对松散土壤的冲击会把细小的黏土颗粒冲到土壤空隙中，从而堵塞土壤并降低土地表层水的渗透率。
In other cases, the finer particles may be removed, while the sand-sized particles are accumulated to form mobile hills or ridges of sand. (TPO2 reading P1) 而有的时候细小的沙粒可能会被吹走，而正常沙粒大小的砂子不断堆积，从而形成移动的沙丘或者沙脊。
Sandstones generally make good aquifers, while finer-grained mudstones are typically impermeable. (TPO28 reading P1) 砂岩一般是很好的储水层，但颗粒更细的泥岩通常不可渗透。
使用注意事项
fine 在地质、沉积物、土壤、水文等语境中，常修饰 particles、grains、sand、sediment、mudstone 等物质名词，表示“颗粒细小的”。这里不能按“好的、不错的”理解，因为语境讨论的是颗粒大小、渗透性和沉积物结构，而不是质量评价。
address geology from a wider perspective 从更宽广角度处理地质学内容
托福雅思例句
So for several weeks like I said we’ll be addressing geology from a wider perspective. (TPO4 listening P5) 所以接下来几周，就像我说的，我们将从更宽广的角度来讨论地质学。
What kinds of plans they’re considering to address this problem? (TPO15 listening P1) 他们正在考虑什么方案来处理这个问题？
But for today, let’s try to get an idea about a question that’s not addressed as much as the others: what was their culture like? (TPO29 listening P5) 但今天我们先了解一个不像其他问题那样经常被讨论的问题：他们的文化是什么样的？
The early explorers and settlers told of abundant deer in the early 1800s and yet almost in the same breath bemoaned the lack of this succulent game animal. (TPO4 reading P1) 早期探险家和殖民者提到19世纪早期有大量鹿群，同时又惋惜这种诱人猎物的稀少。
And when game moved out of the lowlands in early spring, the expedition decided to return east rather than face possible starvation. (TPO4 reading P1) 当猎物在早春迁出低地时，远征队决定返回东部，而不是面对可能的饥饿。
Cave art seems to have reached a peak toward the end of the Upper Paleolithic period, when the herds of game were decreasing. (TPO4 reading P2) 在旧石器时代晚期猎群数量减少时，洞穴艺术似乎达到了高峰。
使用注意事项
game 作“猎物/野味”时常出现在史前人类、狩猎、动物群、食物来源等语境中，搭配 animal、herds、hunt、deer 等词。此时不能理解为“游戏/比赛”，因为语境讨论的是可被捕猎的动物资源。
Because the surface of the water table is not flat but instead rises and falls with topography, groundwater is affected by gravity in the same fashion as surface water. (TPO28 reading P1) 因为地下水位表面不是平的，而是随地形起伏，所以地下水和地表水一样受到重力影响。
Nonetheless, modern architects did not simply employ these new materials in a strictly practical fashion — they consciously exploited their aesthetic possibilities. (TPO37 reading P3) 然而，现代建筑师并不只是以严格实用的方式使用这些新材料；他们还主动开发这些材料的美学可能性。
使用注意事项
fashion 在正式语境中可表示“方式/模式”，常出现在 in the same fashion、in a practical fashion 等结构中。这里不是服装时尚，而是说明行为、过程或影响发生的方式。
When the current slows down, its competence (how much it can carry) decreases and the stream deposits the largest particles in the streambed. (TPO52 reading P1) 当水流放缓时，它的搬运能力会下降，河流会把最大的颗粒沉积在河床中。
This resulted in a powerful water current encircling Antarctica, which prevented the Antarctic waters from mixing with warmer water. (TPO33 listening P5) 这导致了一股强大的水流环绕南极洲，阻止南极洲海域与较温暖的海水混合。
The tidal currents are constantly churning up the sediments that rivers deposit in the estuary. (TPO44 listening P6) 潮汐水流不断搅动河口中由河流沉积下来的沉积物。
使用注意事项
current 作名词时常出现在水文、海洋、气象、电学等语境中，表示流动的水、气或电。看到它前后有 stream、water、tidal、Antarctica、estuary、sediments 等词时，应理解为“流”，不是“当前的”。
Sports can promote social integration by bridging gaps between people of various backgrounds. (匹克新托福 · 官方样题02（Bank 102） · Reading Part 1 / Passage 4 · The Impact of Sports on Social Integration) 体育能够通过弥合不同背景人群之间的隔阂来促进社会融合。
This theory, known as moderate realism, bridged the gap between nominalism and classical realism. (匹克新托福 · 2026年真题23（Bank 540） · Reading Part 2 / Passage 2 · Medieval European Philosophy) 这一理论被称为温和实在论，它弥合了唯名论与古典实在论之间的分歧。
使用注意事项
bridge 作动词时常与 gap、gaps、differences 等抽象名词搭配，表示“弥合差距/连接两端”。判断线索不是实体桥梁，而是 social integration、theory、nominalism、realism 等抽象对象之间的距离或分歧。
And then it raises its feathers, so it looks like it’s got a coat of fur. (TPO11 listening P2) 然后它会竖起羽毛，看起来像披着一层皮毛。
The primary difference is that a rabbit’s young are born blind and without fur, while a hare’s babies are born with a full coat and able to see. (TPO20 listening P6) 兔子和野兔幼崽的主要区别是：兔子出生时看不见且没有毛，而野兔出生时全身有毛并且能看见。
The ready availability of coal inspired William Murdoch during the 1790s to develop the first new form of nighttime illumination to be discovered in a millennium and a half. (TPO6 reading P1) 煤炭的容易获得激发 William Murdoch 在18世纪90年代发明了1500年来第一种新的夜间照明方式。
So there could be a couple of entry doors in different places, which like the windows, provided ready access to the outdoors. (TPO32 listening P6) 所以不同位置可能会有几个入口门，像窗户一样，提供通向户外的便捷通道。
These rocks are then uplifted sometime in the future to form new mountain ranges, which exhibit the sedimentary layers of the earlier episodes of erosion and deposition. (TPO35 reading P1) 这些岩石之后会被抬升形成新的山脉，展示早期侵蚀和沉积阶段形成的沉积层。
These episodes of rapid evolution are separated by relatively long static spans during which a species may hardly change at all. (TPO30 reading P2) 这些快速进化阶段被相对漫长的静止时期分隔开，在这些时期中一个物种几乎不会变化。
Maturation of the frontal lobes of the brain continues throughout early childhood, and this part of the brain may be critical for remembering particular episodes in ways that can be retrieved later. (TPO6 reading P3) 脑额叶在幼儿期持续成熟，而这部分大脑可能对以之后可提取的方式记忆特定事件至关重要。
Consolidated (or cemented) sediments, too, contain millions of minute water-holding pores. (TPO1 reading P3) 固结的沉积物也含有数以百万计、能够储水的微小孔隙。
The daguerreotype was a unique image that reproduced what was in front of the camera lens in minute, unselective detail and could not be duplicated. (TPO22 reading P2) 达盖尔银版照相法能以微小且不加选择的细节复制镜头前的画面，并形成无法复制的唯一影像。
Phytoplankton are minute, free-floating aquatic plants. 浮游植物是微小的、自由漂浮的水生植物。
In Berlin, for the premiere performance outside the Soviet Union of The Battleship Potemkin, film director Sergei Eisenstein worked with Austrian composer Edmund Meisel on a musical score matching sound to image; the Berlin screenings with live music helped to bring the film its wide international fame. (TPO12 reading P2) 在柏林，电影导演 Sergei Eisenstein 与奥地利作曲家 Edmund Meisel 合作为《战舰波将金号》创作与画面匹配的配乐；柏林配有现场音乐的放映帮助这部电影赢得了广泛的国际声誉。
Rarely a filmmaker might send along an original score composed especially for a film, but usually a compilation of music that already existed would be used. (TPO22 listening P6) 电影制作者很少会随片附上专门为电影创作的原创配乐，通常会使用已有音乐的汇编。
a theory advanced in the twentieth century 20世纪提出的一种理论
advance a hypothesis 提出假说
托福雅思例句
Another, advanced in the twentieth century, suggests that humans have a gift for fantasy, through which they seek to reshape reality into more satisfying forms than those encountered in daily life. (TPO1 reading P2) 另一种在20世纪提出的理论认为，人类具有幻想能力，通过幻想试图把日常生活中的现实重塑成更令人满意的形式。
使用注意事项
advance 在学术写作中可表示“提出理论、观点或假说”，常以被动形式 advanced by / advanced in 出现。这里不是“进步/发展”，因为主语或被修饰对象是 theory、hypothesis、idea 等抽象观点。
It was this that made the organization of irrigation, particularly the building of canals to channel and preserve the water, essential. (TPO26 reading P3) 正是这一点使灌溉系统的组织，尤其是建造水渠来疏导并保存水资源，变得至关重要。
Intricate market networks channeled supplies along well-defined routes. 错综复杂的市场网络沿着明确路线输送供应品。
Moreover, commodities imported from the Near East by the royal courts of predynastic Upper Egypt would have been channeled through the Memphis region on their way south. (TPO51 reading P1) 此外，前王朝时期上埃及王室从近东进口的商品，在南下途中很可能会经过孟斐斯地区被输送。
Groundwater is stored in the pore spaces and joints of rocks and unconsolidated sediments or in the openings widened through fractures and weathering. (TPO12 reading P3) 地下水储存在岩石和松散沉积物的孔隙与节理中，或储存在由断裂和风化作用扩大的孔洞中。
The rocks get broken down into smaller and smaller particles as they are weathered. (TPO10 listening P5) 岩石在风化过程中会被分解成越来越小的颗粒。
The latter two sources are limited to those few areas where surface water seeps down through underground faults or fractures to reach deep rocks heated by the recent activity of molten rock material. (TPO21 reading P1) 后两种形式的储集层局限于少数区域，在这些区域，地表水通过地下断层或断裂渗入到被近期熔岩活动加热的深层岩石。
Pipelines carrying oil can be broken by faults or landslides, causing serious oil spills. (TPO4 reading P3) 运输石油的管道可能会因断层或山体滑坡而断裂，造成严重石油泄漏。
The most widely accepted theory, championed by anthropologists in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, envisions theater as emerging out of myth and ritual. (TPO1 reading P2) 19世纪末和20世纪初的人类学家所支持的一种最广为接受的理论认为，戏剧起源于神话和仪式。
Ecologist Paul S. Martin has championed the model that associates the extinction of large mammals at the end of the Pleistocene with human predation. (TPO54 reading P2) 生态学家 Paul S. Martin 支持这样一个模型：将更新世末期大型哺乳动物的灭绝与人类捕食联系起来。
The impact of raindrops on the loose soil tends to transfer fine clay particles into the tiniest soil spaces, sealing them and producing a surface that allows very little water penetration. (TPO2 reading P1) 雨滴对松散土壤的冲击会把细小黏土颗粒带入最细小的土壤空隙，从而堵塞空隙并形成几乎不让水渗透的表层。
The intense heat of the impact would produce heat-shocked quartz in many types of rock. (TPO15 reading P3) 撞击产生的极高温会在多种岩石中形成热冲击石英。
Innovations and global dynamics can also pose other challenges. (匹克新托福 · 官方模考题01（Bank 111） · Reading Part 2 / Passage 2 · Agricultural Economics) 创新和全球动态也可能带来其他挑战。
To combat this, observatories are often located in remote areas and protected by radio quiet zones, but the global spread of wireless technology continues to pose a serious threat. (匹克新托福 · 2026年真题03（Bank 467） · Reading Part 1 / Passage 7 · Radio Astronomy: A New Perspective) 为应对这一问题，天文台通常设在偏远地区并由无线电静默区保护，但无线技术在全球范围内的扩散仍然构成严重威胁。
Coastal erosion poses a significant threat to communities worldwide, especially in low-lying and densely populated coastal zones. (匹克新托福 · 2026年真题21（Bank 536） · Reading Part 1 / Passage 6 · Coastal Erosion Solutions) 海岸侵蚀对世界各地社区构成重大威胁，尤其是低洼且人口稠密的沿海地区。
Another challenge is preserving these spaces—it can be difficult to secure the funding necessary to maintain them. (匹克新托福 · 2026年真题12 · Bank 501 · Reading Part 1 / Passage 7 · Urban Green Spaces) 另一个挑战是保护这些空间，因为可能很难获得维护它们所必需的资金。
Cultivation practices such as weeding, transplanting, watering, and pest control may have become essential to secure sufficient food. (TOEFL Reading 300 PDF page 177) 除草、移栽、灌溉和病虫害控制等耕作方式可能已经变得必不可少，以确保获得足够食物。
Often, a considerable number of farmers lived in these centers to secure greater protection for themselves and their possessions. (TOEFL Reading 300 PDF page 412) 大量农民常常住在这些中心，以便为自己和财产获得更大的保护。
A forager goes out to secure nectar, pollen, and water for the colony. (TOEFL Reading 300 PDF page 471) 觅食蜂会外出为蜂群获取花蜜、花粉和水。
使用注意事项
secure 作动词时宾语常是 funding、protection、resources、nectar 等需要争取或获取的对象，表示“获得/确保得到”。注意和 secured to vegetation 这类“固定在……”的本义用法区分，也不要把 security 的名词义混进本条。
The results showed improved mental well-being and a modest increase in employment, but the findings were not definitive. (匹克新托福 · 2026年真题22（Bank 539） · Reading Part 2 / Passage 2 · Universal Basic Income Debate) 结果显示心理健康有所改善，就业率小幅上升，但这些发现并非定论。
This era was marked by groundbreaking shows that experimented with new formats and storytelling techniques. (匹克新托福 · 官方模考题07 · Bank 117 · Reading Part 2 / Passage 4 · The Golden Age of Television) 这一时期以开创性的节目为特征，这些节目尝试了新的形式和叙事技巧。
使用注意事项
marked/by marked by 在历史、艺术、社会变化类文章中常表示“显著的/以……为特征”。如果后面接 by 加时代特征、变化或现象，不应理解为“被做了记号”。
ITER aims to demonstrate sustained fusion reactions that produce more energy than they consume—a critical milestone called net energy gain. (匹克新托福 · 2026年真题26 · Bank 566 · Reading Part 2 / Passage 2 · Magnetic Confinement Fusion) ITER 旨在证明持续的聚变反应能够产生超过其消耗的能量，也就是一个被称为净能量增益的关键里程碑。
